Enterogermina Oral Suspension: Uses, Dosage, Side Effects, Composition

 

Enterogermina

Enterogermina Vials

Enterogermina is mainly used to prevent or treat conditions like diarrhea and other gastrointestinal disorders. Acute toxicity and abdominal pain are the major side effects seen at high repetitive doses. It should be totally avoided in case of intestinal perforation and allergic cases.

Uses of Enterogermina

Enterogermina is used to prevent or treat following conditions:

Diarrhoea: Used to treat diarrhoea including Traveller’s diarrhoea and diarrhoea caused due to antibiotics.

Indigestion: Used to prevent or treat digestion problems.

Immunity building: Used as an immunity booster in cases of low immunity.
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): Used to treat conditions like Irritable bowel syndrome.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): Used to treat inflammatory bowel disease.

GI Disorders:Used to treat gastrointestinal disorders like gastroenteritis, colitis

RTI: Used in cases of respiratory tract infection


Others: Used to treat other conditions like amoebic dysentery.

How does Enterogermina work?

Enterogermina Contains Bacillus Clausii as its main active ingredient.

Enterogermina is a combination of good bacterias, which is introduced in the intestine intentionally to balance the microbial flora (internal environment) of the intestine.

Use of Antibiotics and other conditions can cause a disbalance between the good and bad bacterias and can lead to pathologies (diseases)

Introduction of good bacteria inside the body leads to a competition between good and bad bacterias for nutrients.

Eventually the bad bacterias die because of loss of nutrients.

How to take Enterogermina?

• Enterogermina is usually available in the form of capsules, vials.
• Enterogermina capsule is taken via mouth with a glass of water preferably with or after food as it prevents any potential gastric irritation caused by the drug when taken empty stomach.
• Enterogermina capsules should never be chewed or crushed. It should be swallowed as a whole.
• Enterogermina should be taken with equal time interval between two doses if consumed more than once a day.
• It is advisable to go through the pack insert properly before consuming the drug to have a better understanding of the drug.

watch on YouTube

How to break new records in the 200 meters

Usain Bolt's 200m record has not been beaten for ten years and Florence Griffith Joyner's for more than thirty years. And what about if the secret behind beating records was to use mathematics? Thanks to a mathematical model, Amandine Aftalion, CNRS researcher at the Centre d'analyse et de mathématique sociales (CNRS/EHESS), and Emmanuel Trélat, a Sorbonne Université researcher at the Laboratoire Jacques-Louis Lions (CNRS/Sorbonne Université/ Université de Paris) have proved that the geometry of athletic tracks could be optimised to improve records. They recommend to build shorter straights and larger radii in the future. These findings are to be published in Royal Society Open Science on 25 March, 2020.

At present, there are three designs of tracks that can be certified by World Athletics: standard tracks (consisting of straights and semi-circles) and two types of double-bend track (where the double bend is made of three arcs of two different radii). It is usually admitted in the athletic community that the standard track is the quickest and that there is no chance of beating a record on a double-bend track. Double-bend tracks have actually been designed to accommodate a football or rugby stadium, and the main drawback is that the bends have a smaller radius of curvature. Therefore, the centrifugal force is greater and the double bend tracks are slower. Multi-sports arenas are therefore not adapted to athletic records and there is a major disadvantage to being on inner lanes.

The mathematical model developped by Amandine Aftalion and Emmanuel Trélat couples mechanics and energetics, in particular the maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and anaerobic energy, into a system of differential equations that combines velocity, acceleration, propulsive force, neural drive with cost and benefit parametres in order to determine the optimal strategy to run a race.

Since this model optimises the effort to produce the best race, it makes it possible to compute the optimal geometry of a track and predict the discrepancy in records according to this geometry and the type of lane. For standard tracks, it shows that shorter straights and larger radii of curvature could improve the 200m record possibly by 4 hundredth of a second. The constraint to accommodate other sports can be met by opting for new tracks with shorter horizontal straights and small vertical straights. The researchers recommendation is to privilege such tracks in the future in order to improve runners' performance.

They are adapting their model to horse races with the support of the AMIES.

Assessing the global problem of poor sanitation

Experts are investigating a better way of measuring the number of people exposed to the health risks of poorly-managed sanitation systems -- and it will help reveal whether the world is on track to deliver UN Sustainable Goal 6 (SDG6).

SDG6 is the aspiration that everyone should have access to safe water and sanitation and that water should be well managed all over the world -- the target is to achieve this in the next 10 years.

Progress is monitored by the World Health Organisation and UNICEF, working together as part of the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene.

The JMP is advised by high level sector experts, a group of whom was due to meet at the University of Leeds in the UK this week but the meeting was cancelled because of COVID19.

Instead, the experts are being brought together in a virtual conference hosted by Barbara Evans, Professor of Public Health Engineering at Leeds and a member of the JMP advisory group.

They are meeting to support six countries that are seeking to design, test and implement new data collection systems to more accurately estimate how many people across the world use sanitation systems that are not connected to a treatment works -- and whether those systems are safely managed.

Known as on-site sanitation, these range from sceptic tanks to pit latrines, and are widely used in low-to-middle income countries as well as in many rural areas in richer countries.

The JMP report that 3.1 billion people use on-site sanitation. Very few countries keep data on how the waste material is isolated and treated. In many parts of the world, the system for safely disposing of the sludge has never existed or has broken down. That poses a major risk to human health.

Professor Evans said: "Many of the world's poorest people rely on-site sanitation and it those communities that suffer the most when the disposal and treatment of waste sludge from pit latrines, for example, does not happen.

"Or the waste that is supposedly taken for treatment is just dumped into rivers or onto land.

"Ensuring the safe disposal of human waste can bring about a revolution in public health. It can prevent the communicable diseases linked to poor sanitation and dirty water which cause illness and premature death.

"In some parts of the world, death rates among young children are at levels we saw in the UK at the end of the 19th century and much of that is due to the lack of adequate sanitation.

"It is also important to realise that this discharge of huge quantities of faecal waste into the environment can also contribute to the acceleration of anti-microbial resistance in disease-causing organisms."

The JMP has secured a three-year grant from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to develop a set of data collection techniques that can be rolled out to countries to try and get a better assessment of the scale of challenge that's needed to ensure sewage waste is safely dealt with.

Professor Evans added: "The aim of SDG6 is to give everyone access to safe sanitation within the next ten years.

"You significantly increase the chance of achieving that when you know the scale of the challenge. At the moment there is a lack of robust data on exactly how many people rely on on-site sanitation and in turn how many of those people face inadequate sludge disposal."

Previous estimates of the scale of the problem

A research study, led by the University of Leeds, based on work funded by the World Bank and now supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, conducted a rapid assessment of sanitation systems in 39 cities. It estimated that less than of the waste generated by households was safely disposed of.

The untreated waste ended up in storm drains, open water on wasteland or unsanitary dumping grounds.

The study also found that waste sludge collection was often an informal arrangement in communities and was happening outside of any city or municipality regulation. Cities have tended to have more complex sewerage systems and overlook the on-site facilities.

Professor Evans was one of the first academics to draw attention to the failure of sludge collection systems worldwide. In seminal research undertaken in partnership with the World Bank, she and colleagues drew attention to what they described as the missing link in sanitation services -- effective collection and disposal

Researchers find key to keep working memory working

Working memory, the ability to hold a thought in mind even through distraction, is the foundation of abstract reasoning and a defining characteristic of the human brain. It is also impaired in disorders such as schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease.

Now Yale researchers have found a key molecule that helps neurons maintain information in working memory, which could lead to potential treatments for neurocognitive disorders, they report March 19 in the journal Neuron.

"Working memory arises from neuronal circuits in the prefrontal cortex," said senior author Min Wang, senior research scientist in neuroscience. "We have been learning that these circuits have special molecular maintenance requirements."

Neurons in the prefrontal cortex excite each other to keep information "in mind." These circuits act as a sort of mental sketch pad, allowing us to remember that caramelized onions are cooking in the frying pan while we search the next room for a pair of scissors.

The new study shows that these prefrontal cortical circuits depend upon the neurotransmitter acetylcholine stimulating muscarinic M1 receptors aligned on the surface of neurons of the prefrontal cortex. Blocking muscarinic M1 receptors reduced the firing of neurons involved in working memory, while activating the M1 receptors helped restore neuronal firing. Because acetylcholine actions at M1 receptors are reduced in schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease, the M1 receptor may serve as a potential therapeutic target, the authors suggest.

Wang notes that a drug currently under development for the treatment of schizophrenia stimulates this M1 receptor and has shown promise in early clinical trials.

A new way to study HIV's impact on the brain

Though many negative repercussions of human immunodeficiency virus infection can be mitigated with the use of antiretroviral therapy (ART), one area where medical advances haven't made as much progress is in the reduction of cognitive impacts. Half of HIV patients have HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND), which can manifest in a variety of ways, from forgetfulness and confusion to behavior changes and motor deficiencies.

To better understand the mechanisms underlying HAND, researchers from Penn's School of Dental Medicine and Perelman School of Medicine and from the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP) brought together their complementary expertise to create a laboratory model system using three of the types of brain cells thought to be involved. Led by doctoral student Sean Ryan, who was co-mentored by Kelly Jordan-Sciutto of Penn Dental Medicine and Stewart Anderson of CHOP and Penn Medicine, the model recapitulates important features of how HIV infection and ART affect the brain.

"Frankly the models we generally use in the HIV field have a lot of weaknesses," says Jordan-Sciutto, co-corresponding author on the paper, which appears in the journal Stem Cell Reports. "The power of this system is it allows us to look at the interaction between different cell types of human origin in a way that is more relevant to patients than other models."

In addition to studying HIV, members of the team plan to use the same model to shed light on the neurological mechanisms that underlie other conditions, such as schizophrenia, Alzheimer's, and even normal aging.

"We're collaborating with a variety of colleagues to use this system to study Alzheimer's disease as well as schizophrenia," says Anderson, co-corresponding author on the paper. "We have the components in a dish that we know are interacting in these diseases, and this gives us a new mix-and-match way to understand how certain cells are contributing to neuronal damage."

Indeed, the impetus to create the model grew not out of HIV research but work that Ryan was pursuing in Anderson's lab on schizophrenia.

"We had been looking at the role of microglia, the resident immune cells of the central nervous system," says Ryan, first author on the work. "We wanted to see if we could see the mechanistic changes that occur with microglia in schizophrenia."

To do so, Ryan and Anderson were interested in using human-induced pluripotent stem cells -- adult cells that are reprogrammed to resemble embryonic stem cells -- which can be coaxed into differentiating into a variety of different cell types.

But schizophrenia is a complicated disease with a variety of contributing genetic and environmental factors and a broad spectrum of presentations. Rather than looking at something complex, they sought to apply their new system to a disease that likewise causes neurological damage but does so in a more dramatic way and in which microglia are also implicated: HIV/AIDS infection.

They reached out to Jordan-Sciutto, who has deep experience investigating the mechanisms of HAND and was eager for the opportunity to develop a model superior to those currently available. Together, the scientists identified the three cell types they were most interested in studying: neurons, astrocytes, and microglia.

Neurons aren't directly infected by HIV but are known to be damaged during infection. Meanwhile astrocytes are believed to interact with neurons, causing damage by sending pro-inflammatory factors into the spaces between cells, called synapses. And microglia, which are responsible for maintaining a healthy environment in the absence of disease, are seen to expand and contribute to inflammation during HIV infection.

After nailing the technical challenge of creating this tractable model in which each cell type is generated independently and then mixed together, the team used it to probe how HIV infection and ART impact the cells, both alone and in combination.

"A lot of people are taking PreEP [pre-exposure prophylaxis] if they're in a situation where their risk of contracting HIV is heightened," says Ryan. "Just as we want to understand the cognitive impacts of HIV, we also want to see whether these drugs alone are impacting the brain health of otherwise healthy people."

The researchers looked at RNA expression in their cultures to get a sense of what proteins and signaling pathways were becoming activated in each scenario. During infection, they saw inflammatory pathways that had previously been implicated in HIV in earlier research. When they introduced the antiretroviral drug EFZ, which is not in common use in the United States but remains a frontline therapy in many other areas of the world, with an infection, the activity of most of these pathways was reduced.

"But this scenario involved its own unique response," says Ryan. Certain pathways associated with inflammation and damage remained despite the introduction of EFZ.

"EFZ treatment of the tri-cultures that included HIV-infected microglia reduces inflammation by around 70%," Ryan says. Interestingly, EFZ by itself also triggered inflammation, though to a lesser extent than infection.

"It seems a combination of infection and ART is creating its own unique response that is different from the sum of its parts," Ryan says. "Knowing what pathways are still active due to ART could help us appropriately target additional therapies so patients don't develop HAND."

Many features of infection seen in the three-cell culture mirror what is known from HIV infection and ART treatment in people, giving the researchers confidence in the reliability of their model.

"Just looking at the microglia," says Anderson, "we see in our system that they are taking on both of their normal roles in keeping key signaling systems balanced during their normal state and activating and causing damage when they're fighting infection. We're able to model normality and abnormality in a way we haven't been able to before."

For Jordan-Sciutto, the new system "is really going to change the way my lab operates going into the future." She's hopeful many other HIV scientists will take it up to further their studies as she also explores more aspects of HIV's impact on the brain, such as how it navigates through the blood-brain barrier that normally protects the central nervous system from inflammation and infection.

T

As the ocean warms, marine species relocate toward the poles

Greenland iceberg

Since pre-industrial times, the world's oceans have warmed by an average of one degree Celsius (1°C). Now researchers report in Current Biology on March 26th that those rising temperatures have led to widespread changes in the population sizes of marine species. The researchers found a general pattern of species having increasing numbers on their poleward sides and losses toward the equator.

"The main surprise is how pervasive the effects were," says senior author Martin Genner, an evolutionary ecologist at the University of Bristol. "We found the same trend across all groups of marine life we looked at, from plankton to marine invertebrates, and from fish to seabirds."

The new study builds on earlier evidence for a prevailing effect of climate change on the distributions, abundance, and seasonality of marine species. Based on those findings, Genner's team reasoned that marine species should be doing well at the leading (poleward) edge of their ranges but poorly at their trailing (equatorward) side. They also realized that existing databases of global species distributions could be used to test this hypothesis.

Based on a thorough search of available data in the literature, the researchers now report on a global analysis of abundance trends for 304 widely distributed marine species over the last century. The results show that -- just as predicted -- abundance increases have been most prominent where sampling has taken place at the poleward side of species ranges, while abundance declines have been most prominent where sampling has taken place at the equatorward side of species ranges.

The findings show that large-scale changes in the abundance of species are well underway. They also suggest that marine species haven't managed to adapt to warmer conditions. The researchers therefore suggest that projected sea temperature increases of up to 1.5°C over pre-industrial levels by 2050 will continue to drive the latitudinal abundance shifts in marine species, including those of importance for coastal livelihoods.

"This matters because it means that climate change is not only leading to abundance changes, but intrinsically affecting the performance of species locally," Genner says. "We see species such as Emperor penguin becoming less abundant as water becomes too warm at their equatorward edge, and we see some fish such as European seabass thriving at their poleward edge where historically they were uncommon."

The findings show that climate change is affecting marine species in a highly consistent and non-trivial way. "While some marine life may benefit as the ocean warms, the findings point toward a future in which we will also see continued loss of marine life," Genner says.

The long-term data included in the study primarily represent the most well-studied regions of the world. The researchers say that more work is needed to understand how climate change has affected marine life in all regions of the world in greater detail.

"We aim to get a better understanding of precisely how marine climate change drives abundance shifts," Genner says. "Is this mainly related to the physiological limits of the species, or instead due to changes in the species with which they interact?"

The work was supported by the Natural Environment Research Council and the UK Government Office for Science.

Why Italy? By Tracy Beanz

A diff article.Excellent analysis
Please read we all are or were worried why Italy is going down with the Virus. An in-depth article. Please take time and read.


UncoverDC
Home  Articles
Why Italy?
By Tracy Beanz - March 20, 2020

Mayor of Florence Encouraged Italians to ‘Hug a Chinese’ Before Coronavirus Pandemic Hit

Italy has been ravaged by the Wuhan Coronavirus, but the reasons why are linked more closely to globalism than the age of the infected.

Hundreds of thousands of Chinese immigrants now live both legally and illegally in Italy, with 300K legally registered and many more illegal.
Italy recently entered into a new economic partnership with China called “One belt, One road”
China has revitalized northern Italian ports in order to transport goods more efficiently to the rest of Europe
The mayor of Florence initiated a social media campaign called “Hug a Chinese” using Chinese produced video as an engine to dispel the “racism” against the Chinese in Italy
Thirty years ago, Italy saw the beginnings of what would become a serious issue with illegal immigration. What was surprising, was that the immigrants couldn’t just walk over a border to enter the country, they had to flock from China. It began with Italians hiring the Chinese off the books at cheap wages to work making garments in towns and villages renowned for their craftmanship, and morphed into Italians seeing the Chinese learn how to do it faster and cheaper; often times watching as their family owned businesses were shuttered because they were outbid. The Chinese took over the Italian craft and made it their own. What didn’t change was the coveted “Made in Italy” label. The NY Times began documenting the trend in 2010 writing:

Over the years, Italy learned the difficult lesson that it could no longer compete with China on price. And so, its business class dreamed, Italy would sell quality, not quantity. For centuries, this walled medieval city just outside of Florence has produced some of the world’s finest fabrics, becoming a powerhouse for “Made in Italy” chic.

And then, China came here.

Chinese laborers, first a few immigrants, then tens of thousands, began settling in Prato in the late 1980s. They transformed the textile hub into a low-end garment manufacturing capital, enriching many, stoking resentment and prompting recent crackdowns that in turn have brought cries of bigotry and hypocrisy.

The city is now home to the largest concentration of Chinese in Europe; some legal, many more not. Here in the heart of Tuscany, Chinese laborers work round the clock in some 3,200 businesses making low-end clothes, shoes and accessories, often with materials imported from China, for sale at midprice and low-end retailers worldwide.

The trend continued as whole villages in Italy became Chinese villages, with the Chinese displacing the Italians who lived there, creating their own neighborhoods, and pushing out decades of Italian family owned business. They weren’t known for following the rules. It caused much local consternation; the Italians were forced to pay their taxes and follow the employment guidelines, while the Chinese seemed to have built flourishing enterprises by skirting the rules, treating their people poorly, and engaging in rich human smuggling operations, to boot. There was little accountability for the Chinese, and much for the native Italians.

Outside of the typical problems one would see with such an influx of immigrants from a far-off land, were also other, more scandalous ones.

In 2017, the Bank of China agreed to pay a 600,000 euro fine to settle a money laundering case involving its Milan branch, court documents showed. The Florence court hearing the case gave four employees of the Milan branch of China’s fourth biggest bank a suspended two-year prison sentence for failing to report illicit money transfers. Florence prosecutors leading the so-called “River of Money” investigation alleged that more than 4.5 billion euros ($4.78 billion) was smuggled to China from Italy between 2006 and 2010 by Chinese people living mainly in Florence and nearby Prato. About half of the money was sent via BOC, the prosecutors said. The court also ordered BOC to pay back 980,000 euros which it said it had earned through the illegal operations. According to the prosecutors, the proceeds sent to China came from a series of illegal activities, including counterfeiting, embezzlement, exploitation of illegal labour and tax evasion. Bank of China said in a statement it had not committed any crime and was not admitting guilt by agreeing to pay the fine, which was a way of closing the case and saving time.

The wheel of corruption kept spinning, and the Italian people became more and more angry. Sometimes, this led to violence. It also led to a nationwide sentiment that something needed to change, and the populist uprising we have been seeing across the globe also began to take a foothold in Italy.

From 2018:

At a time when Europe is filled with anti-immigrant rhetoric, political extremists have pointed to the demographic shifts in Prato as proof that Italy is under siege. In February, Patrizio La Pietra, a right-wing senator, told a Prato newspaper that the city needed to confront “Chinese economic illegality,” and that the underground economy had “brought the district to its knees, eliminated thousands of jobs, and exposed countless families to hunger.” Such assertions have been effective: in Italy’s recent national elections, Tuscany, which since the end of the Second World War had consistently supported leftist parties, gave twice as many votes to right-wing and populist parties as it did to those on the left. Giovanni Donzelli, a member of the quasi-Fascist Fratelli d’Italia party, who last month was elected a national representative, told me, “The Chinese have their own restaurants and their own banks—even their own police force. You damage the economy twice. Once, because you compete unfairly with the other businesses in the area, and the second time because the money doesn’t go back into the Tuscan economic fabric.”

In March of 2019, Italy entered into a new agreement with China, part of its “one belt, one road” initiative, a sweeping economic agreement with the country that saw the port of Triesta in northern Italy “revitalized” and managed by The PRC.

The project makes enormous infrastructure investments to move Chinese goods and resources. Italy became the first of the Group of 7 nations that once dominated the global economy to take part in China’s “One Belt One Road” throughout Asia, Africa and Europe.

The Trump administration, which tried and failed to stop the deal, focused in the days leading up to Mr. Xi’s visit on blocking any Italian use of 5G wireless networks developed by the Chinese electronics giant Huawei, which Washington warned could be used by Beijing to spy on communications networks.

Italy, which is saddled with crushing debt, hopes to lift its lagging economy by exporting goods to China and inviting more Chinese investment.

But opponents of the project in the Trump administration and in the European Union worry that Italy has turned itself into a Trojan Horse, allowing China’s economic — and potentially military and political — expansion to reach into the heart of Europe.

The detailed reporting on this slow takeover is expansive, and we could continue here for many paragraphs, but let us fast forward to early 2020. As China withheld information about the seriousness and spread of Wuhan corona-virus, many of these immigrants were returning- and arriving – from China. Once news of the virus became mainstream and China felt increasing backlash over the handling of the crisis, they turned to one of their major economic hubs for some help.

It wasn’t chance. It wasn’t age. It wasn’t overall health, and it wasn’t the good-hearted nature of the Italian people that caused the virus to ravage their nation. It was a leadership who are now under the thumb of the Chinese government.

On February 1, 2020, the mayor of Florence initiated something called “Hug a Chinese” day.
(Sorry I could not get the video downloaded)

This video was released on February 4, and was produced by the Chinese government. Under the guise of being “woke”, the Italian government prodded their citizens to erase the stigma surrounding the virus, and hug one of the hundreds of thousands of Chinese who had been living, recently returned, or recently arrived in Italy. Italy had become dependent on China, and their capital is a large percentage of the Italian economy. When “One Belt One Road” began early in 2019, the Italians made clear they were willing to partner with China in their quest for global dominance, and sadly it appears in their attempt to please the purse strings, they put a large percentage of their citizens in harms way.

This may also explain the enormous amount of aid and assistance flowing into Italy now by way of China. Far from being compassionate, the Chinese are likely looking to protect their investment.

So when folks ask, “Why Italy?” the reasons are clear. Along with an ageing population who may not be the healthiest, there is also a government now beholden to China, who acting at their behest, took extreme measures to the opposite of social distancing. For an in depth look at the cluster history inside Italy, please see here.

China’s global dominance has become clear even to the average observer in recent months, as Americans have become aware of the supply line dependence on China for even our most vital commodity; medicine. UncoverDC columnist Carol King detailed some of those issues in a piece that you can read here. We have even witnessed the legacy media seemingly hold water for the communist nation, choosing to parrot the claim of “racism” against China because our President has chosen to correctly name the virus what it is, the Chinese virus – rather than bow to the propaganda of a foreign nation hell bent on our destruction.

If one positive thing can come of the Wuhan corona-virus, maybe it will be that the world will finally open its eyes to just how sinister China has been over the past few decades, slithering in to our households, seemingly unbeknownst to us, and co-opting even our most basic necessities. Time will tell, but one thing is clear- it appears that “Why Italy?” is more nefarious than anyone could have initially thought.

Tracy Beanz is the Founder and Editor in Chief at UncoverDC

Water splitting advance holds promise for affordable renewable energy

Model water molecules

A breakthrough into splitting water into its parts could help make renewable energy pay off, even when the sun isn't shining and the wind isn't blowing.

Using solar and wind power when it is available for water splitting, a process that uses electricity to split H₂O into hydrogen and oxygen, offers a way to store energy in the form of hydrogen fuel.

Currently the most popular system used for water splitting, or water electrolysis, relies on precious metals as catalysts, but a collaborative research team, including scientists from Los Alamos National Laboratory and Washington State University, has developed a system that uses less expensive and more abundant materials. They describe the advance in a paper published in Nature Energy on March 9.

"The current water electrolysis system uses a very expensive catalyst. In our system, we use a nickel-iron based catalyst, which is much cheaper, but the performance is comparable," said Yu Seung Kim, a research scientist at Los Alamos National Laboratory and corresponding author on the paper.

Most water splitting today is conducted using a piece of equipment called a proton exchange membrane water electrolyzer, which generates hydrogen at a high production rate. It's expensive, and works under very acidic conditions, requiring precious metal catalysts such as platinum and iridium as well as corrosion-resistant metal plates made of titanium.

The research team worked to solve this problem by splitting water under alkaline, or basic, conditions with an anion exchange membrane electrolyzer. This type of electolyzer does not need a catalyst based on precious metals. In fact, a team led by Yuehe Lin, professor at WSU's School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, created a catalyst based on nickel and iron, elements that are less expensive and more abundant in the environment.

Lin's team shared their development with Kim at Los Alamos, whose team in turn developed the electrode binder to use with the catalyst. The electrode binder is a hydroxide conducting polymer that binds catalysts and provides a high pH environment for fast electrochemical reactions.

The combination of the Los Alamos-developed electrode binder and WSU's catalyst boosted the hydrogen production rate to nearly ten times the rate of previous anion exchange membrane electrolyzers, making it comparable with the more expensive proton exchange membrane electrolyzer.

About 10 million metric tons of hydrogen are currently produced in the United States every year, mostly by using natural gas in a process called natural gas reforming, according to the U.S. Department of Energy. Hydrogen produced from a water splitting process that is powered by electricity from renewable energy holds many economic and environmental benefits, Lin said.

"Water splitting is a clean technology, but you need electricity to do it," said Lin, who is also a corresponding author on the paper. "Now we have a lot of renewable energy, wind and solar power, but it is intermittent. For example, at night we can't use solar, but if during the day, we can use extra energy to convert it into something else, like hydrogen, that's very promising."

The global hydrogen generation market is expected reach $199.1 billion by 2023. Potential markets for hydrogen energy include everything from mass energy conversion and power grid management to fuel cells for cars. Lin estimates that there are approximately 600 wind farms in the United States ready for direct connections to water electrolysis systems.

In addition to Los Alamos and WSU, researchers at Pajarito Powder and Sandia National Laboratories also contributed to this work. This research was supported by the HydroGen Advanced Water Splitting Materials Consortium established under the U.S. Department of Energy and Washington state's JCDREAM program.

The right dose of geoengineering could reduce climate change risks

View of Earth from space

Stratospheric aerosol geoengineering is the idea that adding a layer of aerosol particles to the upper atmosphere can reduce climate changes caused by greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide.

Previous research shows that solar geoengineering could be achieved using commercially available aircraft technologies to deliver the particles at a cost of a few billion dollars per year and would reduce global average temperatures. However, the question remains whether this approach could reduce important climate hazards at a regional level. That is, could it reduce region-by-region changes in water availability or extreme temperatures?

Results from a new study by UCL and Harvard researchers suggest that even a crude method like injecting sulphur dioxide in the stratosphere could reduce many important climate hazards without making any region obviously worse off.

The findings, published today in Environmental Research Letters, used results from a sophisticated simulation of stratospheric aerosol geoengineering to evaluate whether the approach could offset or worsen the effects of climate change around the world. How these effects differed under different temperature scenarios was also tested.

The team found that halving warming by adding aerosols to the stratosphere could moderate important climate hazards in almost all regions. They saw an exacerbation of the effects of climate change in only a very small fraction of land areas.

Lead author, Professor Peter Irvine (UCL Earth Sciences), said: "Most studies focus on a scenario where solar geoengineering offsets all future warming. While this reduces overall climate change substantially, we show that in these simulations, it goes too far in some respects leading to about 9% of the land area experiencing greater climate change, i.e. seeing the effects of climate change exacerbated.

"However, if instead only half the warming is offset, then we find that stratospheric aerosol geoengineering could still reduce climate change overall but would only exacerbate change over 1.3% of the land area."

The team emphasise that solar geoengineering only treats the symptoms of climate change and not the underlying cause, which is the build-up of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. It should therefore be considered as a complementary approach to emissions cuts as a way to address climate change.

The study is a follow-up to a paper published last year in Nature Climate Change showed similar results when solar geoengineering was approximated by simply turning down the sun. That prior study raised the question: would the results hold up with a more realistic simulation using injection of sulphur dioxide, the simplest known method of solar geoengineering.

"Our results suggest that when used at the right dose and alongside reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, stratospheric aerosol geoengineering could be useful for managing the impacts of climate change. However, there are still many uncertainties about the potential effects of stratospheric aerosol geoengineering and more research is needed to know if this idea is truly viable," added Dr Irvine.

The team used data from the Geoengineering Large Ensemble Study, which used a sophisticated climate-chemistry model to simulate the climate response to a hypothetical deployment of stratospheric aerosol geoengineering. In this model study, sulphur dioxide was released at different latitudes in the Tropics to produce a layer of aerosols tuned to keep temperatures steady under an extreme global warming scenario.

The researchers focused on changes in mean and extreme temperature, changes in water availability and changes in extreme precipitation, i.e. climate variables that determine key climate risks.

Previous work suggested that stratospheric aerosol geoengineering could lead to a substantial weakening of monsoons and an intensification of drought. However, the authors found that in those regions where halving warming with stratospheric aerosol geoengineering exacerbated change, it increased water availability rather than reduced it. This suggests that concerns that stratospheric aerosol geoengineering could lead to aridification and drought could be misplaced.

Co-author, Professor David Keith (Harvard's Engineering and Applied Sciences and Kennedy school), said: "Early research with climate models consistently shows that spatially uniform solar radiation modification could significantly reduce climate risks when combined with emissions cuts. But, should we trust the models? Uncertainties are deep and no single result is trustworthy, but this paper is a step towards more realistic modelling from injection to regional impacts."

The team are now researching the projected effects of stratospheric aerosol geoengineering on the water cycle in more depth to try to understand the potential benefits and risks to society and ecosystems.

COVID-19 coronavirus epidemic has a natural origin

Coronavirus illustration

The novel SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus that emerged in the city of Wuhan, China, last year and has since caused a large scale COVID-19 epidemic and spread to more than 70 other countries is the product of natural evolution, according to findings published today in the journal Nature Medicine.

The analysis of public genome sequence data from SARS-CoV-2 and related viruses found no evidence that the virus was made in a laboratory or otherwise engineered.

"By comparing the available genome sequence data for known coronavirus strains, we can firmly determine that SARS-CoV-2 originated through natural processes," said Kristian Andersen, PhD, an associate professor of immunology and microbiology at Scripps Research and corresponding author on the paper.

In addition to Andersen, authors on the paper, "The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2," include Robert F. Garry, of Tulane University; Edward Holmes, of the University of Sydney; Andrew Rambaut, of University of Edinburgh; W. Ian Lipkin, of Columbia University.

Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses that can cause illnesses ranging widely in severity. The first known severe illness caused by a coronavirus emerged with the 2003 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) epidemic in China. A second outbreak of severe illness began in 2012 in Saudi Arabia with the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS).

On December 31 of last year, Chinese authorities alerted the World Health Organization of an outbreak of a novel strain of coronavirus causing severe illness, which was subsequently named SARS-CoV-2. As of February 20, 2020, nearly 167,500 COVID-19 cases have been documented, although many more mild cases have likely gone undiagnosed. The virus has killed over 6,600 people.

Shortly after the epidemic began, Chinese scientists sequenced the genome of SARS-CoV-2 and made the data available to researchers worldwide. The resulting genomic sequence data has shown that Chinese authorities rapidly detected the epidemic and that the number of COVID-19 cases have been increasing because of human to human transmission after a single introduction into the human population. Andersen and collaborators at several other research institutions used this sequencing data to explore the origins and evolution of SARS-CoV-2 by focusing in on several tell-tale features of the virus.

The scientists analyzed the genetic template for spike proteins, armatures on the outside of the virus that it uses to grab and penetrate the outer walls of human and animal cells. More specifically, they focused on two important features of the spike protein: the receptor-binding domain (RBD), a kind of grappling hook that grips onto host cells, and the cleavage site, a molecular can opener that allows the virus to crack open and enter host cells.

Evidence for natural evolution

The scientists found that the RBD portion of the SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins had evolved to effectively target a molecular feature on the outside of human cells called ACE2, a receptor involved in regulating blood pressure. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein was so effective at binding the human cells, in fact, that the scientists concluded it was the result of natural selection and not the product of genetic engineering.

This evidence for natural evolution was supported by data on SARS-CoV-2's backbone -- its overall molecular structure. If someone were seeking to engineer a new coronavirus as a pathogen, they would have constructed it from the backbone of a virus known to cause illness. But the scientists found that the SARS-CoV-2 backbone differed substantially from those of already known coronaviruses and mostly resembled related viruses found in bats and pangolins.

"These two features of the virus, the mutations in the RBD portion of the spike protein and its distinct backbone, rules out laboratory manipulation as a potential origin for SARS-CoV-2" said Andersen.

Josie Golding, PhD, epidemics lead at UK-based Wellcome Trust, said the findings by Andersen and his colleagues are "crucially important to bring an evidence-based view to the rumors that have been circulating about the origins of the virus (SARS-CoV-2) causing COVID-19."

"They conclude that the virus is the product of natural evolution," Goulding adds, "ending any speculation about deliberate genetic engineering."

Possible origins of the virus

Based on their genomic sequencing analysis, Andersen and his collaborators concluded that the most likely origins for SARS-CoV-2 followed one of two possible scenarios.

In one scenario, the virus evolved to its current pathogenic state through natural selection in a non-human host and then jumped to humans. This is how previous coronavirus outbreaks have emerged, with humans contracting the virus after direct exposure to civets (SARS) and camels (MERS). The researchers proposed bats as the most likely reservoir for SARS-CoV-2 as it is very similar to a bat coronavirus. There are no documented cases of direct bat-human transmission, however, suggesting that an intermediate host was likely involved between bats and humans.

In this scenario, both of the distinctive features of SARS-CoV-2's spike protein -- the RBD portion that binds to cells and the cleavage site that opens the virus up -- would have evolved to their current state prior to entering humans. In this case, the current epidemic would probably have emerged rapidly as soon as humans were infected, as the virus would have already evolved the features that make it pathogenic and able to spread between people.

In the other proposed scenario, a non-pathogenic version of the virus jumped from an animal host into humans and then evolved to its current pathogenic state within the human population. For instance, some coronaviruses from pangolins, armadillo-like mammals found in Asia and Africa, have an RBD structure very similar to that of SARS-CoV-2. A coronavirus from a pangolin could possibly have been transmitted to a human, either directly or through an intermediary host such as civets or ferrets.

Then the other distinct spike protein characteristic of SARS-CoV-2, the cleavage site, could have evolved within a human host, possibly via limited undetected circulation in the human population prior to the beginning of the epidemic. The researchers found that the SARS-CoV-2 cleavage site, appears similar to the cleavage sites of strains of bird flu that has been shown to transmit easily between people. SARS-CoV-2 could have evolved such a virulent cleavage site in human cells and soon kicked off the current epidemic, as the coronavirus would possibly have become far more capable of spreading between people.

Device brings silicon computing power to brain research and prosthetics

Abstract illustration of neuron and binary code

Researchers at Stanford University have developed a new device for connecting the brain directly to silicon-based technologies. While brain-machine interface devices already exist -- and are used for prosthetics, disease treatment and brain research -- this latest device can record more data while being less intrusive than existing options.

"Nobody has taken these 2D silicon electronics and matched them to the three-dimensional architecture of the brain before," said Abdulmalik Obaid, a graduate student in materials science and engineering at Stanford. "We had to throw out what we already know about conventional chip fabrication and design new processes to bring silicon electronics into the third dimension. And we had to do it in a way that could scale up easily."

The device, the subject of a paper published March 20 in Science Advances, contains a bundle of microwires, with each wire less than half the width of the thinnest human hair. These thin wires can be gently inserted into the brain and connected on the outside directly to a silicon chip that records the electrical brain signals passing by each wire -- like making a movie of neural electrical activity. Current versions of the device include hundreds of microwires but future versions could contain thousands.

"Electrical activity is one of the highest-resolution ways of looking at brain activity," said Nick Melosh, professor of materials science and engineering at Stanford and co-senior author of the paper. "With this microwire array, we can see what's happening on the single-neuron level."

The researchers tested their brain-machine interface on isolated retinal cells from rats and in the brains of living mice. In both cases, they successfully obtained meaningful signals across the array's hundreds of channels. Ongoing research will further determine how long the device can remain in the brain and what these signals can reveal. The team is especially interested in what the signals can tell them about learning. The researchers are also working on applications in prosthetics, particularly speech assistance.

Worth the wait

The researchers knew that, in order to achieve their aims, they had to create a brain-machine interface that was not only long-lasting, but also capable of establishing a close connection with the brain while causing minimal damage. They focused on connecting to silicon-based devices in order to take advantage of advances in those technologies.

"Silicon chips are so powerful and have an incredible ability to scale up," said Melosh. "Our array couples with that technology very simply. You can actually just take the chip, press it onto the exposed end of the bundle and get the signals."

One main challenge the researchers tackled was figuring out how to structure the array. It had to be strong and durable, even though its main components are hundreds of minuscule wires. The solution was to wrap each wire in a biologically-safe polymer and then bundle them together inside a metal collar. This assures the wires are spaced apart and properly oriented. Below the collar, the polymer is removed so that the wires can be individually directed into the brain.

Existing brain-machine interface devices are limited to about 100 wires offering 100 channels of signal, and each must be painstakingly placed in the array by hand. The researchers spent years refining their design and fabrication techniques to enable the creation of an array with thousands of channels -- their efforts supported, in part, by a Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute Big Ideas grant.

"The design of this device is completely different from any existing high-density recording devices, and the shape, size and density of the array can be simply varied during fabrication. This means that we can simultaneously record different brain regions at different depths with virtually any 3D arrangement," said Jun Ding, assistant professor of neurosurgery and neurology, and co-author of the paper. "If applied broadly, this technology will greatly excel our understanding of brain function in health and disease states."

After spending years pursuing this ambitious-yet-elegant idea, it was not until the very end of the process that they had a device that could be tested in living tissue.

"We had to take kilometers of microwires and produce large-scale arrays, then directly connect them to silicon chips," said Obaid, who is lead author of the paper. "After years of working on that design, we tested it on the retina for the first time and it worked right away. It was extremely reassuring."

Following their initial tests on the retina and in mice, the researchers are now conducting longer-term animal studies to check the durability of the array and the performance of large-scale versions. They are also exploring what kind of data their device can report. Results so far indicate they may be able to watch learning and failure as they are happening in the brain. The researchers are optimistic about being able to someday use the array to improve medical technologies for humans, such as mechanical prosthetics and devices that help restore speech and vision.

Additional Stanford co-authors include Mina-Elraheb Hanna (co-lead), former doctoral student in the Melosh lab; Yu-Wei Wu (co-lead), a former postdoctoral fellow in the Ding lab who is now at the Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica; Nora Brackbill, a graduate student in the Chichilnisky lab; and E.J. Chichilnisky, the John R. Adler Professor of Neurosurgery, and professor of ophthalmology. Other co-authors are from the Francis Crick Institute (co-lead), University College London (co-lead), Paradromics Inc. (co-lead), and ETH Zurich.

Chichilnisky is a member of Stanford Bio-X and the Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute. Ding is a member of Stanford Bio-X, the Maternal & Child Health Research Institute (MCHRI), and the Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute. Melosh is a member of Stanford Bio-X and the Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute; an affiliate of the Precourt Institute for Energy; and a faculty fellow of Stanford ChEM-H.

Singapore modelling study estimates impact of physical distancing on reducing spread of COVID-19

Social distancing concept with domino pieces 

A new modelling study conducted in a simulated Singapore setting has estimated that a combined approach of physical distancing interventions, comprising quarantine (for infected individuals and their families), school closure, and workplace distancing, is most effective at reducing the number of SARS-CoV-2 cases compared with other intervention scenarios included in the study.

While less effective than the combined approach, quarantine plus workplace measures presented the next best option for reducing SARS-CoV-2 cases, followed by quarantine plus school closure, and then quarantine only. All intervention scenarios were more effective at reducing cases than no intervention.

The study, published in The Lancet Infectious Diseases journal, is the first of its kind to investigate using these options for early intervention in Singapore using simulation. Despite heightened surveillance and isolation of individuals suspected to have COVID-19 and confirmed cases, the risk is ongoing, with the number of cases continuing to increase in Singapore. Schools have not been closed, and workplace distancing is recommended, but it is not national policy [correct as of 23.03.2020].

The study found that the combined approach could prevent a national outbreak at relatively low levels of infectivity (basic reproductivity value (R0) = 1.5), but at higher infectivity scenarios (R0 = 2.0 (considered moderate and likely) and R0 = 2.5 (considered high)), outbreak prevention becomes considerably more challenging because although effective at reducing infections, transmission events still occur.

Dr Alex R Cook, National University of Singapore, said: "Should local containment measures, such as preventing disease spread through contact tracing efforts and, more recently, not permitting short-term visitors, be unsuccessful, the results of this study provide policy makers in Singapore and other countries with evidence to begin the implementation of enhanced outbreak control measures that could mitigate or reduce local transmission rates if deployed effectively and in a timely manner." 

To assess the potential impact of interventions on outbreak size, should local containment fail, authors developed an individual-based influenza epidemic simulation model, which accounted for demography, individual movement, and social contact rates in workplaces, schools, and homes, to estimate the likelihood of human-to-human transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Model parameters included how infectious an individual is over time, the proportion of the population assumed to be asymptomatic (7.5%), the cumulative distribution function for the mean incubation period (with the virus that causes SARS and the virus that causes COVID-19having the same mean incubation period of 5.3 days), and the duration of hospital stay after symptom onset (3.5 days).

Using this model, authors estimated the cumulative number of SARS-CoV-2 infections at 80 days, after detection of 100 cases of community transmission. Three values for the basic reproduction number (R0) were chosen for the infectiousness parameter, including relatively low (R0=1.5), moderate and likely (R0=2.0), and high transmissibility (R0=2.5). The basic reproduction numbers were selected based on analyses of data from people with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China.

In addition to a baseline scenario, which included no interventions, four intervention scenarios were proposed for implementation after failure of local containment: 1) isolation of infected individuals and quarantine of their family members (quarantine); 2) quarantine plus immediate school closure for 2 weeks; 3) quarantine plus immediate workplace distancing, in which 50% of the workforce is encouraged to work from home for 2 weeks; 4) a combination of quarantine, immediate school closure, and workplace distancing. These interventions follow some policy options currently being undertaken (quarantine and some workforce distancing) by the Singaporean Ministry of Health, as standard interventions for respiratory virus control.

For the baseline scenario, when R0 was 1.5, the median cumulative number of infections at day 80 was 279,000, corresponding to 7.4% of the resident population of Singapore. The median number of infections increased with higher infectivity: 727,000 cases when R0 was 2.0, corresponding to 19.3% of the Singaporean population, and 1,207,000 cases when R0 was 2.5, corresponding to 32% of the Singaporean population.

Compared with the baseline scenario, the combined intervention was the most effective, reducing the estimated median number of infections by 99.3% when R0 was 1.5 (resulting in an estimated 1,800 cases). However, at higher infectivity scenarios, outbreak prevention becomes considerably more challenging. For the combined approach scenario, a median of 50,000 cases were estimated at R0 of 2.0 (a reduction of 93.0% compared to baseline) and 258,000 cases at R0 of 2.5 (a reduction of 78.2% compared to baseline).

Authors also explored the potential impact if the proportion of asymptomatic cases in the population was greater than 7.5% (the proportion of people who are able to transmit despite having no or mild symptoms). Even at a low infectivity (when the R0 was 1.5 or lower), a high asymptomatic proportion presents challenges. Assuming increasing asymptomatic proportions up to 50·0%, up to 277,000 infections were estimated to occur at day 80 with the combined intervention, relative to 1,800 for the baseline at R0 = 1.5.

Dr Alex R Cook added: "If the preventive effect of these interventions reduces considerably due to higher asymptomatic proportions, more pressure will be placed on the quarantining and treatment of infected individuals, which could become unfeasible when the number of infected individuals exceeds the capacity of health-care facilities. At higher asymptomatic rates, public education and case management become increasingly important, with a need to develop vaccines and existing drug therapies."

The authors note several limitations in their study, including dated census population data, impact of migrant movement, the impact of seeding of imported cases (transmissions originating from outside of Singapore) the dynamics of contact patterns between individuals, and other unforeseen factors. Of note, epidemiological characteristics of COVID-19 remain uncertain in terms of the transmission and infectivity profile of the virus; therefore, estimates of the time between symptom onset and admission to hospital, how infectious an individual is over time, and the asymptomatic rate were based on SARS-CoV.

Writing in a linked Comment, Joseph A Lewnard, University of California, Berkeley, USA, and Nathan C Lo, University of California, San Francisco, USA, say: "Although the scientific basis for these interventions might be robust, ethical considerations are multifaceted. Importantly, political leaders must enact quarantine and social-distancing policies that do not bias against any population group. The legacies of social and economic injustices perpetrated in the name of public health have lasting repercussions. Interventions might pose risks of reduced income and even job loss, disproportionately affecting the most disadvantaged populations: policies to lessen such risks are urgently needed. Special attention should be given to protections for vulnerable populations, such as homeless, incarcerated, older, or disabled individuals, and undocumented migrants. Similarly, exceptions might be necessary for certain groups, including people who are reliant on ongoing medical treatment."

The strange orbits of 'Tatooine' planetary disks

ALMA radio antennas at night

Astronomers using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) have found striking orbital geometries in protoplanetary disks around binary stars. While disks orbiting the most compact binary star systems share very nearly the same plane, disks encircling wide binaries have orbital planes that are severely tilted. These systems can teach us about planet formation in complex environments.

In the last two decades, thousands of planets have been found orbiting stars other than our Sun. Some of these planets orbit two stars, just like Luke Skywalker's home Tatooine. Planets are born in protoplanetary disks -- we now have wonderful observations of these thanks to ALMA -- but most of the disks studied so far orbit single stars. 'Tatooine' exoplanets form in disks around binary stars, so-called circumbinary disks.

Studying the birthplaces of 'Tatooine' planets provides a unique opportunity to learn about how planets form in different environments. Astronomers already know that the orbits of binary stars can warp and tilt the disk around them, resulting in a circumbinary disk misaligned relative to the orbital plane of its host stars. For example, in a 2019 study led by Grant Kennedy of the University of Warwick, UK, ALMA found a striking circumbinary disk in a polar configuration.

"With our study, we wanted to learn more about the typical geometries of circumbinary disks," said astronomer Ian Czekala of the University of California at Berkeley. Czekala and his team used ALMA data to determine the degree of alignment of nineteen protoplanetary disks around binary stars. "The high resolution ALMA data was critical for studying some of the smallest and faintest circumbinary disks yet," said Czekala.

The astronomers compared the ALMA data of the circumbinary disks with the dozen 'Tatooine' planets that have been found with the Kepler space telescope. To their surprise, the team found that the degree to which binary stars and their circumbinary disks are misaligned is strongly dependent on the orbital period of the host stars. The shorter the orbital period of the binary star, the more likely it is to host a disk in line with its orbit. However, binaries with periods longer than a month typically host misaligned disks.

"We see a clear overlap between the small disks, orbiting compact binaries, and the circumbinary planets found with the Kepler mission," Czekala said. Because the primary Kepler mission lasted 4 years, astronomers were only able to discover planets around binary stars that orbit each other in fewer than 40 days. And all of these planets were aligned with their host star orbits. A lingering mystery was whether there might be many misaligned planets that Kepler would have a hard time finding. "With our study, we now know that there likely isn't a large population of misaligned planets that Kepler missed, since circumbinary disks around tight binary stars are also typically aligned with their stellar hosts," added Czekala.

Still, based on this finding, the astronomers conclude that misaligned planets around wide binary stars should be out there and that it would be an exciting population to search for with other exoplanet-finding methods like direct imaging and microlensing. (NASA's Kepler mission used the transit method, which is one of the ways to find a planet.)

Czekala now wants to find out why there is such a strong correlation between disk (mis)alignment and the binary star orbital period. "We want to use existing and coming facilities like ALMA and the next generation Very Large Array to study disk structures at exquisite levels of precision," he said, "and try to understand how warped or tilted disks affect the planet formation environment and how this might influence the population of planets that form within these disks."

"This research is a great example of how new discoveries build on previous observations," said Joe Pesce, National Science Foundation Program Officer for NRAO and ALMA. "Discerning trends in the circumbinary disk population was only made possible by building on the foundation of archival observational programs undertaken by the ALMA community in previous cycles."